For my dissertation (BA level) I wanted to research into death anxiety and its relationship with theatre. Below is my findings and reference points of discovery.
Art imitates Death – An Exploration In How Theatre Of The Past Suggests The West Has Become ‘Out Of Touch’ With Death & How Shakespeare as a Contemporary artist is Helping Ease Death Anxiety within modern society
“There is nothing either good or bad but thinking makes it so.”
(William Shakespeare, Hamlet, Act II, Scene II)
Hamlet, a noble Prince of Denmark seeks revenge against his uncle Claudius after having murdered his brother to seize the throne and wed Hamlet’s mother. This all too familiar Shakspearian tragedy still mesmerises as well as unknowingly influences audiences with its plot of death, betrayal, murder and demise.
For a very long-time death has been a taboo topic for people in plenty of cultures across the globe. The west is perhaps, the most out of touch from the answer of what happens after we die. There is plenty of resources to hypothesise such a statement, however little resources to suggest definitive proof. Consequently, when conducting the necessary research for this dissertation I created my own survey to support that the west has become death negative and to gain an accurate representation of the modern west.
The results I gathered from this survey where that seventy five percent, from a group of one hundred and twenty individuals (located in Britain and the USA), were not aware of the process the body undertakes after death. Seventy six percent were not even aware of the options that they would have in relation to their body after they pass away.
There are many reasons why our culture has become so secretive when discussing death and departure. One of the major factors that began to create this taboo has been suggested to be the rise of capitalism in western society. Catlin Doughty explains how it came to be such in ‘Smoke Gets In Your Eyes: And other lessons from the crematorium’
The 1950’s was a glamourous time for the death industry…For almost twenty years after the end of World War II, the national cremation rate hung out in scandalously low 3 to 4 percent range. Why would a family want a cremation when they could impress their neighbours with sleek Cadillac-style caskets, flower arrangements, embalming and elaborate funerals?
In other words, after the post war economic boom, capitalists found ways to create profit from the grief and sorrow of human cadavers, charging thousands of pounds for coffins. The funeral industry has faced years of criticism; documentation of such criticism is found from 1963, Jessica Mitford, a well-known communist of the time, wrote a book titled ‘The American Way of Death’ in which she described the funeral industry as follows.
O death, where is thy sting? O grave, where is thy victory? Where, indeed. Many a badly stung survivor, faced with the aftermath of some relative’s funeral, has ruefully concluded that the victory has been won hands down by a funeral establishment – in disastrously unequal battle
Growing capitalist obligations reformed our society to prefer a façade of death. Covering the reality with embalming fluid. The west are made to believe that in order for an individual to have a happy life that they must have money, and therefore must capitalise every minute of their time. An interesting outlook on this growing epidemic of the hunger to fit into society comes from Sigmund Freud who wrote in his famous study Civilisation and Its Discontent,
It is impossible to escape the impression that people commonly use false standards of measurement — that they seek power, success and wealth for themselves and admire them in others, and that they underestimate what is of true value in life (1930)
Or rather, societies aim to fit perfectly into whatever ideology is thrown at them. People aim to follow the strict rules set in place as they know no escape from it. Such as shown in Antonio Negri and Michael Hardt philosophy of Empire.
From this ideological perspective, the suffering of existence cannot manage to be articulated, become conscious, and establish a standpoint of revolt. This theoretical position leads merely to a cynical attitude and quietistic practices. The illusion of the naturalness of capitalism and the radicality of the limit actually stand in a relationship of complementarity.
The resistance of the capitalist society we live inside cannot ever become material against the current. But how does this link with the prohibition of death discussion within our society? And how hastheatre helped to create a better dialogue?
“Isn’t all this a little morbid?” Caitlin Doughty begins in the introduction to her book on death, Will my cat eat my Eyeballs?
It’s normal to be curious about death. But as people grow up, they internalise this idea that wondering about death is ‘morbid’ or ‘weird’. They grow up scared and criticise other people’s interest in the topic to keep from having to confront death themselves.
Sigmund Freud discussed this idea in Civilisation and its Discontents (1930). In order for society to function with the intention of ‘social norms’, there has to be a balance. Freud wrote the following, Normally, there is nothing of which we are more certain than the feeling of our self, of our own ego.
And what is there that is more important than our ego? Protecting it. No human wants for their ego to be bruised or tampered with.
Although death has been a taboo subject in western culture, humans have always been fascinated by it. Theatre has given societies a safe environment to explore their fascination. If it is such a large taboo, why do Shakespearean tragedies and Agatha Christy murders attract such large crowds?
The Celebration of Death in Contemporary Culture investigates the emergence and meaning of the cult of death. Over the last three decades, Halloween has grown to rival Christmas in its popularity and profitability; dark tourism has emerged as a rapidly expanding industry; and funerals have become less traditional. (Dina Khapaeva)
The previous statement from Khapaeva suggest that, the calling of the unknown be fuelled by the normalisation of tragedy, death and horror by the arts. This dissertation will explore how the contemporary Shakespearian theatre have begun to influence humanity to embrace the darker side of life, as well as discuss how looking back on theatre of the past can underline the wests growing death anxiety epidemic.
Theories of Theatre explain that for something to be classed as theatre, it must require; (At least) one actor, and one audience member as Grotowski Wrote (1968) Can theatre exist without an audience? At least one spectator is needed to make it a performance. Theatre therefore can be classed as the following: Ritualism, Myth retellings, Plays, Shorts, Dramaticules, Storytelling, Poetry reading and Carnival. All artforms discussed in this dissertation are theatre artforms.
Ritualism ticks all the boxes of what makes ‘traditional’ theatre. The ancient rituals I will go on to discuss also require (Myron M as proven by Beasley in his study of ritual) costume and dance as well as having the subtext of religious and mythological motifs in place.
If we briefly return to the modern west, John Cage said Theatre takes place all the time wherever one is; An art simply felicitates persuading one this is the case. In Works on Paper, 1982-90.
With this is mind, ritualism does of course also cover funerals, storytelling (performative epic poetry) and tragedies. Theatre itself in many cases must be classed as a ritual. There is routine of learning lines and movements to appease an audience (a traditional rituals audience would of course be the gods they are appeasing) this is one of the reasons why it is so difficult to pinpoint theatre’s exact beginning. Theatre origin searchers have named the idea of early theatre of ritualistic nature as Ur-drama. These early dramatics would be performative spectacles for pre-Christian worship. In ‘On Origins: Behind the Rituals’ by David George he presents the following.
Ritual origin theory tells us that rituals are (were) already theatrical. That may seem obvious, but one obvious possible implication-namely that ritual may, therefore, have itself evolved out of theatre rather than the other way round
Simply suggesting that, theatre created itself through forms of ritual practice. Although we will never know the exact moment theatre started, we can suggest the means for it to have begun. There are other early theatre suggestions by Schechner that suggest theatres creation for entertainment and societal growth,
‘Performativity’ as a concept is closely related to postmodernism. The postmodern view does not see the idea of ‘performance’ as intrinsically artistic or theatrical, but as something that pervades the fabric of the social, political and material world.
Although religious theorist types would argue that ancient rituals were to please demons and the devil this is likely not the case. As noted by David George
“Shamanism belongs to the second category (‘Magical’ Practice) and is undoubtedly theatrical in its use of costumes, props, dance”
These “Before Christ” religions could arguably not have had forms of god, whatsoever, however depended on theatre to guide them through life. The rituals relationship with death has been traditional rituals have been passed through since ancient times. These have been known to deal with elements of death, as ways to help the dead pass onto the afterlife with the essential spiritual guidance. Such as the mummification of the ancient Egyptians, but in performative forms. For further understanding of these rituals we can take for example Myron M Beasley’s Vodou, Penises and Bones, Ritual performances of death and eroticism in the cemetery and the junk yard of Port-au-Prince. In which he discusses his time in Haiti where he observed and studied ‘traditional ritual practices in contemporary society about death and loss’ A finding from his time in Haiti was of the death spirit and his theatrical tendencies.
Gede – the spirit of death – occupies a very special place in the pantheon on Vodou spirits. He is the most powerful lwa, who serves both as the lord of the cemetery and the porter of the spirits of the dead to the outer realm. Noted as a trickster – a performance artist
Suggesting the ancient relationship with death having importance to their cultures. Along with the importance of theatre for the representation of these topics. Cultures used these performances to help with grief and accepting death as a part of living. Reflecting on these rituals in modern day we could argue that the use of carnival style ritualism in Mexico’s Día de los Muertos or “Day of the Dead” suggests much the same. Where participants wear costumes, leave offerings and take part in the Catrina parade. Arguably our modern traditions create the same type of dialogue that ancient rituals would have. They celebrate, rather than shun the idea of death, creating a healthier relationship between the living and the lost.
But how does this suggest that the west have become out of touch with death? Ritualistic death theatre in the modern west hardly exists like it has in the past (With the exception of the Irish Wake, Native American funeral customs and Día de Muertos or Día de los Muertos in Mexico, all previous heritages have always embraced death, as a result of being not so obsessed with a capitalistic way of living). Societies in the east however continue to perform their funeral traditions. There is evidence of this in writing from Performance Studies in Motion: International Perspectives and Practices in the Twenty-First Century:
In contemporary South Korea, the performance of shamanic rituals (kut) is an appreciated cultural trait and a valuable commodity that produces economic gain.[1] Kut rituals have been documented for hundreds of years, and are performed both privately for clients (sonnim) who wish to appease their ancestors or other spirits, and publicly as symbols of national heritage.
The wests lack of modern ritualism inherently suggests that we hold a certain amount of death anxiety. As a result of caring too much about capitalising each minute of being alive, there is too much for the capital brain to lose out on when we die. Death anxiety is considered to be a basic fear underlying the development and maintenance of numerous psychological conditions. (Clinical Psychology Review, 2014)This implies that humanity has reached a point where death is so disconnected from the west, it has become a fascination, a spectacle even.
Audiences revel in the murders and tragedies that are provided as entertainment since it now holds a call of the void appealing nature to us. This moves us towards our second question. How is contemporary theatre being used by artists to create dialogues of death in the west? As well as how it will help society overall?
The structure of these dialogues have always been there, starting conversations audiences did not know they were ready to have. Moving from ancient ritualism, the next best explorations of death in theatre leads to the telling’s of myths and legends in the Greek tragedies and divine comedies. Death was ever present.
Mythology tells us that love, sexual desire and death co-exist as conflicting yet complementary forces in the human psyche. Theatre and theory, from the ancient world to the present day, have explored the embodiments and conceptual constellations of sexuality, desire and death in a multitude of ways. (Gritzner, 2010)
Karoline Gritzner explores the origins of Western theatre through stories, myth and legend. Many myths and legends deal with philosophical centre points paralleling the contemporary work of today.
Epic poems and myths are stories that are supposed to be there to support generations to grow. The presence of death in its rawest form in theatre suggests humanities ancient fascination with being here one day and gone the next. A good example of a myth that deals with death in an outright sense is Inferno by Dante Alighieri. The divine comedy follows his pilgrimage through the afterlife with depictions of the devil and other hellish creatures.
Much the same as how Dante explored the afterlife and human’s relationship with it in the 1500’s, between five hundred years later artists are still exploring the unknown boundaries between life and death. More contemporary artists (from the previous ancient theatre forms discussed already) have used Shakespearian tragedies, Becketts existentialistic theatre and other modern styles such as the Artaudian, have allowed playwrights and audiences to comment on the natural and innate side of humanity.
The Shakespearian Tragedy should not be considered as contemporary theatre. Nevertheless, Shakespeare’s work is almost more relevant to our current time period than they would have been during the Elizabethan era. They were so successful as they helped to balance the understanding of life and death and continue to act as a catalyst for developing death positive dialogues in western theatre during the twenty first century. There is, of course, now more than ever a relevance for people to come to terms with death as a result of capitalism. Shakespeare does this onstage through his expressions of grief, loss and love.
Shakespeare found a contemporary way of provoking thoughts for his audiences. Take Romeo and Juliet. Although the tragedy is eminent within the play (The words death and dead are spoken eighty-one times within the play, the only Shakespeare play that has more utterances of the word is Richard III). It is performed as a play solely about love. The conclusion that Shakespeare draws upon within Romeo and Juliet is exceptionally simple. There is no point to living if we cannot be surrounded in life with love.
Amen, amen. But come what sorrow can, It cannot countervail the exchange of joy That one short minute gives me in her sight. Do thou but close our hands with holy words, Then love-devouring death do what he dare; It is enough I may but call her mine. (Romeo, Act 2 Scene 6)
This notion inspired audiences indicating you may live without the fear of death so long as you are surrounded by the people that you love. Romeo and Juliette continues to help us to ease our death anxiety, this is a concept that would have been revolutionary to comment upon within Elizabethan times, and even now as the west is encouraged to always capitalise their time. He does this by encouraging the audience to embrace life and never miss a second. As death ‘cannot countervail the exchange of joy’. Just as rituals for the dead have done throughout ancient history.
Shakespeare’s contemporary way of establishing dialogues of death is also eminent within possibly one of his most famous pieces Hamlet. The play is such an iconic and powerful piece of theatre, laced with notions of death and the torment of life. Margreta de Grazia proposes Hamlet as the most contemporary of all the Shakspearian works,
Hamlet’s particular claim to modernity began when an analogy was discovered between Hamlet and Orestes; both ancient and modern sons had a father killed and a mother stained…Hamlet then emerges as contemporary with (and even in advance of) those who reflect on him in the modern world. And like all good versions of the modern, he lends himself to periodic modernization – to perpetual renewal in the image of each new succeeding present (de Grazia (2003)
What makes Hamlet in particular to return to is the philosophical and psychological notions that Shakespeare questions within the play. William Shakespeare wrote Hamlet shortly after his eleven-year-old son Hamnet passed away. The play develops a dialogue of grief as it was something that he himself was dealing with at the time without an outlook to comment on his own grief. The issue of upholding masculinity within the Elizabethan time period is something that mirrors the wests own disconnection with death. Shakespeare used theatre to create a dialogue within himself on death. He asks the questions about death that contemporary audiences did not know they were questioning themselves, while simultaneously coming to conclusions in order to put forward a new death positive attitude. The famous soliloquy creates such dialogues
To be, or not to be: that is the question: Whether ’tis nobler in the mind to suffer The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune, Or to take arms against a sea of troubles, And by opposing end them? To die: to sleep; No more; and by a sleep to say we end (Hamlet Act III, Scene I)
This particular scene is one that questions the belief of what it means to be alive. What makes it worthwhile. Shakespeare allows the audience to publicly confront death anxiety on the stage. This therefore allows an audience to confront these questions so they may not have to discover and hide them inside of themselves.
It is also eminent that Shakespeare creates these dialogues successfully as the popularity of his works has only grown. His death positive outlook transpired to encourage Pianist André Tchaikowsky to donate his skull for the opportunity to play the passed-away Yorick in Hamlet with The Royal Shakespeare Company. Being able to dream of the positive notion of being Yorick in death, and subsequently your body still being important after you are gone is yet another way to ease the anxiety around your own death.
As I have clarified throughout, theatre can (and has) been used throughout history to act as a sign of the times. Our system ‘undertakes to abolish death and, for this very purpose, erects death above death and is haunted by it as its own end’ (Gritzner, 2010)
To return to the dual purpose of theatres creation by Schechner,
‘Representational art of all kinds is based on the assumption that ‘art’ and ‘life’ are not only separate but of different orders of reality. Life is primary, art secondary’. (Schechner, 2002, P.116)
Therefore, theatre and art can be used as a catalyst for change in any forms as they mirror one another. Humans have a fear of what is foreign to them hence it is reassuring to see a death renaissance occurring within the west. As this is one of the best ways imaginable to ease death anxiety and help humanity begin to live life to the fullest. There is a sweetness in knowing that Shakespeare’s plays will seemingly be around for decades to come. Within the last twenty years Shakespearian plays have seen more and more adaptations. With this we are presented with the notion that the west may soon see a surge of death positive dialogues coming to light.
And so, to conclude, theatre of the past suggests the west has become out of touch with death as we no longer have a positive dialogue with it. Examples of early ritualism dying out in the west and the rise in capitalisation over time has made it difficult for western society to embrace life and along with death, as a pair. Shakspearian work continues to create these dialogues for the west. Allowing them to question the perception of what it means to be alive, what it means to die while concurrently giving a definitive answer, hence therefore, helping to ease death anxiety with a death positive outlook.
Bibliography (Accessed 16 December 2020)
Atay Citron, Sharon Aronson-Lehavi and David Zerbib Bloomsbury Methuen Drama, (2014) Performance Studies in Motion: International Perspectives and Practices in the Twenty-First Century [Book]
Caitlin Doughty, (2014) Smoke gets in your eyes [Book]
Caitlin Doughty, (2019) Will my cat eat my Eyeballs [Book]
David George, (2014) On origin behind rituals, [Theatre Journal Article]
Dina Khapaeva, (2017) The Celebration of Death in Contemporary Culture [Book]
Gianna Bouchard, (2010) Bodyworlds and Theatricality ‘Seeing death live’ [Theatre Journal Article]
Grotowski, J. (1968). Towards a Poor Theatre. United States: Taylor & Francis. [Book]
Howard Barker, (2004) Death, The One and the Art of Theatre [Book]
Jennifer Woodward, (1997) The Theatre of Death: The Ritual Management of Royal Funerals in Renaissance [Book]
Jessica Mitford, (1963) The American Way of Death [Book]
Karoline Gritzner(Edited by), (2010) Eroticism and Death in Theatre and Performance [Book]
Lisa Iverach, Ross G. Menzies, Rachel E. Menzies, (2014) Death anxiety and its role in psychopathology: Reviewing the status of a transdiagnostic construct, [Clinical Psychology Review Article]
M Hardt, A Negri, (2000) Empire [Book]
Margreta de Grazia (2003) When did Hamlet become modern? Textual Practice [Theatre Journal Article]
Marvin Carlson, (2001) The Haunted Stage: The Theatre as Memory Machine [Book]
Myron M Beasley, (2010) Vodou, Penises and Bones, Ritual performances of death and eroticism in the cemetery and the junk yard of Port-au-Prince [Study]
Sigmund Freud, (1930) CIVILIZATION & Its Discontents [Book]
UKEssays (2018) Richard Schechner’s Performance Theory. [online]
William Shakespeare, (1597) Romeo and Juliet [Play]
William Shakespeare, (1603) Hamlet [Play]
Yuji Sone, (2010) Beyond Performance: Yukio Mishima’s theatre of Death [Theatre Journal Article]